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_050831/204788_计算机词典doc这里是3000多个。绝对够你用。都是信息技术词汇
每当企业成立后，明示或暗示采用了一种特殊的商业模式，描述了设计或创造价值，提供架构，并捕获它职业机制的一种商业模式的实质，是在德 - 罚款的方式，其中企业客户提供了价值，诱使客户支付的价值，并且将这些款项以得益它因此反映了管理层对客户所需要的假设，他们希望如何，以及企业如何能够最好地满足组织这些需要，得到报酬这样做，使这一条获益这个的目的是了解商业模式的意义，探索与企业战略，创新管理的联系，以及经济理论。
每当一个企业,它(直接或间接地雇用了一个特定的商业模式,介绍了设计和建筑的价值创造过程的机理、配送、捕捉它一种商业模式的本质是在德- 以精炼的企业提供满足客户需求的诱惑顾客支付的价值,并把这些付款给利润这反映了管理的假设顾客想要什么,他们要如何,企业如何才能最好地满足这些需求的组织,得到付费,赚钱这篇文章的目的是要理解的重要性,探讨了它们之间的商业模式和经营策略,创新的管理,和经济理论。
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New Public Management : Contemporary Western trend of the new public administration From the start of the 1970s, the West has dominated the field of public administration nearly a and was regarded to be effective, even the best traditional or mainstream public administration, subjected to a new external environment increasingly tough challenges, and the almost routine, rigid-tier system can not meet the increasingly rapid changes in information and knowledge-intensive society and economic life, build on its two major theoretical basis -- Goodnow Wilson and the political-administrative theory and the two-layer management Huibaike no theory Law answered and solved the government faces an increasingly serious problems and difficulties : the financial crisis, the social welfare policy unsustainable, government agencies increasingly bloated, inefficient, the public lost confidence in the government's ability, "government failure" theory has begun to 正是在这样的历史背景下，一种新的公共行政理论、管理模式——新公共管理（NewPublic Management）在80年代的英美两国应运而生，并迅速扩展到西方各国。It is in this historical backdrop, a new public administration theory, Management -- New Public Management (NewPublic Management) in the 1980s, the Anglo-American two crops, and the rapid expansion of the Western 与以往传统的公共行政框架内进行的变革不同，新公共管理不是对现存行政管理体制和方式进行某种程度的局部调整，或仅仅是为了降低行政管理的成本，减少行政费用开支，更重要的是，它是对传统的公共行政模式的一种全面清算和否定。And the number of traditional public administration within the framework of the changes, Public management is not new to the existing administrative structure and ways of some degree of partial adjustment or simply to lower administrative costs and reduce administrative expenses, but more importantly, It is the traditional model of public administration of a comprehensive settlement and 一、新公共管理的理论基础1, the new public management theory 如果说传统的公共行政以威尔逊、古德诺的政治—行政二分论和韦伯的科层制论为其理论支撑点的话，新公共管理则以现代经济学和私营企业管理理论和方法作为自己的理论基础。If the traditional public administration to W Goodnow political-administrative theory and the two-Weber-tier system on the support of their theory, new public while management of modern economics and private enterprise management theory and methods as its theoretical 首先，新公共管理从现代经济学中获得诸多理论依据，如从“理性人”（人的理性都是为自己的利益，都希望以最小的付出获得最大利益）的假定中获得绩效管理的依据；从公共选择和交易成本理论中获得政府应以市场或顾客为导向，提高服务效率、质量和有效性的依据；从成本—效益分析中获得对政府绩效目标进行界定、测量和评估的依据等等。First, the new public management from modern economics has many theoretical basis, From the "rational" (the rational is for their own want to pay the smallest gain maximum benefits) of the premise is the basis for performance management; from the public choice theory and transaction cost which the government should be market-oriented or customers, improve the efficiency of services, the quality and effectiveness of the basis; from the cost-effectiveness analysis was to define the performance goals, Measurement and evaluation, and so on the 其次，新公共管理又从私营管理方法中汲取营养。Secondly, the new public management from the private management methods to absorb 新公共行政管理认为，私营部门许多管理方式和手段都可为公共部门所借用。The new public administration that many private sector management methods and means available to the public sector 如私营部门的组织形式能灵活地适应环境，而不是韦伯所说的僵化的科层制；对产出和结果的高度重视（对私营部门来说，产出就意味着利润，而在高度竞争的市场环境中，要获取利润就必须给顾客提供高质量的服务，同时尽可能地降低成本），而不是只管投入，不重产出；人事管理上实现灵活的合同雇佣制和绩效工资制，而不是一经录用，永久任职，等等。Such as the private sector, the organizational form of flexibility in adapting to the environment, and not Weber said the rigid hierarchy; outputs and outcomes of the high degree of importance (for the private sector, output means profits in a highly competitive market environment, we must make profits to provide customers with high-quality service, Meanwhile, as far as possible to reduce costs), rather than just input and output weight; personnel management to achieve a flexible system of employment contracts and performance pay system, rather than by hiring a permanent office, and so 总之，新公共管理认为，那些已经和正在为私营部门所成功地运用着的管理方法，如绩效管理、目标管理、组织发展、人力资源开发等并非为私营部门所独有，它们完全可以运用到公有部门的管理中。In short, the new public management, and is already by the private sector to successfully used management methods, If performance management, goal management, organizational development, human resources development is not unique to the private They can be used in public sector 二、新公共行政管理的基本特征Second, the new public administration of the basic features 新公共管理是个非常松散的概念，它既指一种试图取代传统公共行政学的管理理论，又指一种新的公共行政模式，还指在当代西方公共行政领域持续进行的改革运动。New Public Management is a very loose concept, it refers to an attempt to replace the traditional public administration management theory, Also referred to a new model of public administration, also refers to the contemporary Western ongoing public administration reform 其名称在西方各国也不尽相同，如在英国叫“管理主义”，在美国则称为“企业家的政府”或“新公共管理”，在其他一些国家又称为“市场导向型公共行政”等等，但它们都具有大体相同的特征。Its name in western countries is not necessarily the same as in the United Kingdom called "management", in the United States known as the "entrepreneurial government" or "new public management" In some other countries, also known as the "market-oriented public administration," and so on, but they have broadly similar 首先，新公共管理改变了传统公共模式下的政府与社会之间的关系，重新对政府职能及其与社会的关系进行定位：即政府不再是高高在上、“自我服务”的官僚机构，政府公务人员应该是负责任的“企业经理和管理人员”，社会公众则是提供政府税收的“纳税人”和享受政府服务作为回报的“顾客”或“客户”，政府服务应以顾客为导向，应增强对社会公众需要的响应力。First, the new public management to change the traditional model of public government and the relationship between society, reopened to the functions of the government and with the community relations position : that the government is no longer superior, "self-service" bureaucracy, government officials should be responsible "corporate managers and managers" the public is to provide the government's tax revenue "taxpayers" and access to government services in return for the "clients" or "customers" government services should be customer-oriented and should enhance the public's need to respond to 近年来，英、德、荷兰等国政府采取的简化服务手续、制订并公布服务标准、在某一级行政区域和某些部门或行业开办“一站商店”服务等，就是在这种新的政府—社会关系模式下所施行的一些具体措施。In recent years, Britain, Germany, the Netherlands and other government services to simplify the procedures and to develop and publish service standards, in a regional and an administrative certain sectors or industries offer "one-stop shop" It is in this new government-community relations model as applied by some of the specific 其次，与传统公共行政只计投入，不计产出不同，新公共管理更加重视政府活动的产出和结果，即重视提供公共服务的效率和质量，由此而重视赋予“一线经理和管理人员”（即中低级文官）以职、权、责，如在计划和预算上，重视组织的战略目标和长期计划，强调对预算的“总量”控制，给一线经理在资源配置、人员安排等方面的充分的自主权，以适应变化不定的外部环境和公众不断变化的需求。Secondly, with the traditional public administration, only the input, output or not, New Public Management pay more attention to the activities of the outputs and outcomes that provide public services to the efficiency and quality, thus entrusted to the "first-line managers and managers" (that is, low-level civil service) to the post of powers, responsibilities and If the plan and budget, the attention to the organization's strategic goals and long-term plans, the emphasis is on the Budget for its "total" control, to the frontline managers in the allocation of resources and personnel arrangements, and so on the full autonomy to adapt to the fluctuating external environment and the ever changing [NextPage][NextPage] 第三，与上一点紧密相联，新公共管理反对传统公共行政重遵守既定法律法规，轻绩效测定和评估的做法，主张放松严格的行政规制（即主要通过法规、制度控制），而实现严明的绩效目标控制，即确定组织、个人的具体目标，并根据绩效示标（performance indicator）对目标完成情况进行测量和评估，由此而产生了所谓的三E，即经济（economy）、效率（efficency）和效果（effect）等三大变量。Third, and closely related, 1:00, the new public management oppose traditional public administration re-compliance with established laws and regulations, Light performance measurement and assessment practices, advocating the relaxation of the strict regulatory system (that is, through legislation, system control), achieve strict control of the performance goals, which was to determine organizations, individuals of specific goals, under the performance indicator (performance indicator) on the target for completion of the measurement and assessment, as a result, the so-called three E, in which the economy (economy), efficiency (efficency) and the effect (effect), and other three 第四，与传统公共行政排斥私营部门管理方式不同，新公共管理强调政府广泛采用私营部门成功的管理方法和手段（如成本—效益分析、全面质量管理、目标管理等）和竞争机制，取消公共服务供给的垄断性，如“政府业务合同出租”、“竞争性招标”等，新公共管理认为，政府的主要职能固然是向社会提供服务，但这并不意味着所有公共服务都应由政府直接提供。Fourth, public administration and the traditional exclusion of private sector management methods differ, New Public Management emphasizes the wide adoption of successful private sector management methods and means (such as cost-benefit analysis total quality management, management by objectives) and the mechanism of competition, the abolition of the supply of public services monopoly, If "government contracts for rent" and "competitive bidding", the new public management, The main function of government is to serve the community, But this does not mean that all public services should be provided directly by the 政府应根据服务内容和性质的不同，采取相应的供给方式。According to the government services and the different nature of the corresponding supply 如图所示：As shown : 市场状况／宪法职责模式Market status / mode of constitutional duties 附图Map 1、此项服务活动是由宪法明文规定的属政府职责范围之内，同时也没有其他竞争者，如国防，应由政府承担。1, the service activities by the Constitution provides that the government is within the scope of duties, while no other competitor, If defense, should be borne by the 2、虽属宪法规定的政府职责，但同时有其他竞争者的存在，即其他非政府部门也在从事此项活动，如医院，在这种情况下，政府并非一定要亲自提供此项服务，而大可通过招标、合同出租等形式，将其出租给其他公营或私营部门，政府只要对其绩效目标进行测定和评估，并提供相应的报酬，便不失为一种提高服务质量和效率的有效途径。2, although the Constitution stipulates the functions of government, but there are other competitors exist, in other words, the non-governmental sector are engaged in this activity, such as hospitals, in this case, The government is not obliged to provide such a service in person, and goes through the tender, the contract leasing, and other forms, will be rented to other public or private sector, government, as long as its performance targets and measured assessment, and provide corresponding remuneration, it is nevertheless a good quality of service and efficient and effective 这也就是《重塑政府》一书的作者奥斯本和盖布勒所说的政府应该“掌舵而不是划桨”。This is the "reinventing government", the author of a Osborne and Gaebler said the government should "steer and not the " 3、宪法没有规定是政府的职责，而又存在着市场竞争者，如影视业，这时政府就完全可以不从事此项活动，而完全由私营部门承担。3, the Constitution does not provide is the duty of the government, the market and the existence of competitors, such as film and video industry, Then the government can not engage in this activity, and completely by the private 4、宪法既没有规定是政府的职责，同时又没有或缺乏从事此项活动的竞争者，如高等院校，这时政府就应积极培育市场，鼓励人们参与此项活动，以提高此项服务的效率、质量和有效性。4, which is not provided for the constitution is the duty of the government, but also the absence or lack of this activity in the competitors As institutions of higher learning, then the government should actively develop the market and encourage people to participate in activities to enhance the service efficiency, quality and 需要说明的是，上述只是典型的四种公共服务类型，在现实中，It is important to point out, these are just typical four types of public services, in reality,
文章名：Benchmarking the firm’s critical success factors in new product 作者：Cooper, RG, Kleinschmidt, EJ, 杂志：The Journal of Product Innovation Management 12, 374– 去看看 论文投稿资讯站论文发表,论文代写,省级论文,国家级,北大核心发表,研究生,MBA论文
参考文献 [1] Hussain Z, Hussain N, Barber KAn Intranet based system as an enabler in effective project management andimplementation of quality standards: A case study[J] Journal of Engineeringand Technology Management, 2009,26(3):196- [2] Hussain Z, Barber K, Hussain NAn Intranet based system as an enabler in effective project management andimplementation of quality standards: A case study[J] Journal of Engineeringand Technology Management, 2009,26(3): [3] A ASC TELECOM: ASCWins Largest Call Center Project in Europe; ASC signs framework contract withDeutsche Telekom; 33 call centers with more than 10,000 agents will be equippedwith ASCs quality management software, INSPIRATIONpro[N] [4] ASC Wins Largest Call CenterProject in Europe; ASC signs framework contract with Deutsche Telekom; 33 callcenters with more than 10,000 agents will be equipped with ASCA'squality management software, INSPIRATIONpro[N] [5] Brünnler T, Mandraka F, Wrede CE, et Beobachtungen zur ?rztlichen übergabe auf der Intensivstation – einQualit?tsmanagementprojekt Medical shift change in an ICU – A qualitymanagement project[J] Intensivmedizin und Notfallmedizin, 2009,46(3):151- [6] Contract Awards: QualityScotland Wins Multiple Awardees Contract for Project Management ConsultancyServices[N] [7] DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR ISSUESGRANTS NOTICE TO HAVE COST EFFECTIVE, LOCAL-LEVEL COST SHARE PROGRAM WITHNON-FEDERAL PARTNERS TO IMPLEMENT CONSERVATION, OTHER PUBLIC LAND MANAGEMENTPROJECTS FOR THE GOOD OF THE GENERAL PUBLIC AND PUBLIC RESOURCES, INCLUDING BUTNOT LIMITED TO, RECREATION, FISH, WILDLIFE, SPECIAL STATUS PLANTS, WATERQUALITY, CULTURAL SITES, HISTORICAL TRAILS[N] [8] DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR ISSUESGRANTS NOTICE TO IMPLEMENT CONSERVATION, OTHER PUBLIC LAND MANAGEMENT PROJECTSFOR GOOD OF GENERAL PUBLIC, PUBLIC RESOURCES, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO,RECREATION, FISH, WILDLIFE, SPECIAL STATUS PLANTS, WATER QUALITY, CULTURALSITES, HISTORICAL TRAILS[N] [9] FIRST FACILITATING AGRICULTURALRESOURCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS PROJECT TO HELP IMPROVE WATER QUALITY INWITHLACOOCHEE RIVER[N][10] Harte-Hanks Trillium Softwareand Syncsort combine Data Quality with Data Management; Alliance helpscustomers reduce project costs while providing high-speed transformation andaggregation[N][11] Sims N Natalie Sims: ProjectManager, Health Care Safety and Quality Unit, Australian Institute of Healthand Welfare Junior Vice-President, HIMAA Board of Directors[J] HealthInformation Management Journal, 2009,38(1):67-[12] A Northern IrelandWater is close to completing the Pounds 120m Belfast Sewers P It is amajor stormwater management scheme aimed at improving water quality in theLagan and Blackwater rivers, while reducing the flooding risk in Belfast, aswell as upgrading the sewer network to EU standards: 1[N][13] Notice of Availability ofBiotechnology Quality Management System Pilot Project Draft Audit Standard[Z]Federal Information & News Dispatch, Inc, 2009: 74, [14] MLOUKA S K B ProjectManagement and Total Quality Management : Complementary or confused?[J]Essachess : Journal for Communication Studies, 2009,2(3):81-[15] Project management of complexand embedded systems; ensuring product integrity and program (Briefarticle)(Book review)[M]//Book News, Inc, [16] A Sajan Releases NewVersion of Market-leading Translation Management System, GCMS(TM): GCMS 0aimed at improving the quality and speed of enterprise localizationprojects[N][17] Odesina V O Sickle cell painmanagement in the emergency department: A two phase quality improvementproject[D] ProQuest, UMI Dissertations Publishing, [18] Catarino M F L, Alves D C D S,de Jesus Pereira A M, et Software projects’ most importantactivities of quality management: A Delphi study[J] Communications of theIBIMA, 2009,11(7):60-[19] SOUTH FLORIDA WATER MANAGEMENTDISTRICT MOVES FORWARD WITH PROJECT TO ENHANCE EVERGLADES WATER QUALITY[N][20] Systems Analysis and Design:Techniques, Methodologies, Approaches, and Architectures[M] ME Sharpe, Inc,[21] Mehmood Z 和 S S Teaching QualityAssurance and Project Management to Undergraduate Computing Students inPakistan[J] [22] A Trillium Software:Harte-Hanks Trillium Software and Syncsort combine Data Quality with DataManagement; Alliance helps customers reduce project costs while providinghigh-speed transformation and aggregation[N][23] Baker J 和 M R UndergraduateQuality Management Project: Motorcycle Manufacturer Vendor Rating System[J]College Teaching Methods & Styles Journal, 2009,5(1):11-[24] USDA OPENS PUBLIC COMMENT ONBIOTECHNOLOGY QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM PROJECT[N]
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IntroductionDuring the past two decades total quality management (TQM) has spread considerablyamong firms, and consequently researchers have studied this management approach insome Some authors find a positive relation between TQM adoption and organisationalperformance ( Douglas & Judge, 2001; Kaynak, 2003; Powell, 1995) Powell(1995), under the framework of the resource-based view (RBV) of the firm, conceptualisesTQM as a strategic From that standpoint, various authors have considered theRBV as a useful theoretical approach to explain TQM’s impact on organisational performance( Escrig-Tena & Bou-Llusar, 2005; Reed, Lemak, & Mero, 2000; Savolainen,2000) Under the RBV, TQM constitutes a resource that is difficult to imitate (Powell,1995) and that generates competitive advantages in the firms that adopt it (Savolainen,2000) Moreover, Reed et (2000) deduced that TQM itself has the potential to generatebarriers to imitation, necessary for In turn, Escrig-Tena and Bou-Llusar(2005) conclude that TQM positively influences organisational performance through thedevelopment of a series of competencies (skills or specific abilities to deploy resources)Some consensus exists about TQM’s capacity to improve organisational performance,so we focus our analysis on how firms can increase the benefits deriving from TQM This is the main objective of the current For this purpose, we use the theoreticaland conceptual framework provided by Williamson’s (1985) transaction cost theory(TCT) This allows us to examine the economic nature of TQM and its capacity toimprove organisational performance in terms of wealth Under TCT, TQM canbe defined as a specific organisational design option (Wruck & Jensen, 1994) Thus, its capacity to improve organisational performance lies in its ability to solve the firm’s organisationaldesign (OD) Specifically, following Milgrom and Roberts (1992),these problems are the information (coordination) and motivation (incentive) problemsarising in After a review of the literature on TQM and OD, we argue and conclude that TQMadoption and implementation must be consistent with OD Otherwise, thepotential benefits of TQM can be diluted by the increase in the level of residual loss(ex-post transaction cost resulting from the appearance of opportunistic behaviours fromthe employees) We analyse a sample of firms that have adopted TQM, and find empiricalevidence of complementarities when firms apply OD and TQM elements Our results show that firms that manage to exploit these complementarities obtain superiororganisational The paper is structured as In the next section, we analyse TQM’s capacity togenerate value and solve the OD problems arising in firms (information and motivationproblems) We then present the design of our empirical research project, specifically thefinal sample and the variables The penultimate section reports and analyses theresults The final section presents the paper’s main conclusions and Total quality management (TQM) as an organisational design (OD) optionThe origin of organisational design (OD) problems lies in the fact that firm resources havemultiple On the one hand, the presence of multiple owners implies the need On the other, their diverging interests lead to the appearance of 太长了，把分给我，我发给你好了。另：如果分高的话，你的毕业论文我可以帮你，我刚写完operations management的论文，虽然是全英文的，但可以帮你翻译
希望对你有用，然后给点分数给我。 外文资料名称： Value-Based Management of Software Testing 外文资料出处： Institute of Software Technology & Interactive System 附 件： 外文资料翻译译文 外文原文 基于价值的软件测试管理 鲁道夫,斯蒂芬,保罗 摘要: 根据研究表明测试已经成为软件开发过程中一个很重要的环节，它占据了整个软件开发成本的百分之三十到五十。测试通常不是用来组织商业价值的最大化，也不是肩负着项目的使命。路径测试、分支测试、指导测试、变换测试、场景测试以及需求测试等对于软件的所有方面都是同等重要的。然而在实践中百分之八十的价值往往来自百分之二十的软件。为了从软件测试中得到最大的投资回报，测试管理需要最大化它的价值贡献。在本章，我们将更加促进对基于价值的测试的需要，描述支持基于价值的测试管理的实践，勾画出基于价值的测试管理的框架，并举例说明该框架。 关键词: 基于价值的软件测试,基于价值的测试,测试成本,测试利益,测试管理 1 前言 测试是软件质量保证过程中最重要和最广泛使用的方法。校验和验证旨在通过综合分析, 测试软件确保其正确运行功能，确保软件的质量和软件的可靠性。在IEEE12(1990)中,测试被定义为在规定条件下对执行的系统或者组件进行观察和记录,并对系统或者组件进行评价的活动。 测试在实践过程中被广泛的使用，在保证质量策略的诸多组织中扮演着重要的角色。软件影响着成千上万人的日常生活，担负着艰巨的任务。因此软件在不久的将来将显得尤其的重要。研究表明，测试通常消耗软件开发成本的30%至50%。对于安全危急系统，甚至更高的比例也不足为奇。因此软件测试具有挑战的就是寻找更多的有效途径进行有效的测试。 软件测试管理的价值在于努力减少测试成本和满足需求。有价值的测试管理对于项目目标和商业价值也能有很好的向导。在第一章，Boehm 列举了很多方面的潜在测试成本。该例子说明了利用客户结账类型的7%的成本来完成50%的软件测试利益。尽管百分百测试是一个不太切实际的目标, 然而通过调整测试方法, 仍有很大的空间来改进和节省达到预期的价值。基于软件工程的价值动力在于目前软件工程的实践研究都是把需求, 测试案例, 测试对象和产品缺陷看的同等重要。这对测试显然是正确的，它对产品价值间接的做出贡献。开发和测试的分离使得这问题显得更为突出。测试往往是一个纯粹的技术问题，将使得测试和商业决策之间曾解链的关系变的更加紧密。本章主要描述了提高基于价值的测试管理的需求, 解释其基本要素, 讨论现有的实例来支持基于价值的测试, 以及基于价值的测试管理的基本框架。本章接下来部分的基本结构如下：2节讨论测试管理的贡献价值； 3节讨论已测案例对于测试管理的支持； 4节用例子描述基于价值的测试管理的框架。本章最后将对具体的再作更进一步的研究。 基于价值测试的描述 基于价值的校验和验证的目标被定义为确保软件的实施能够满足其预期的目标价值利益。如果我们从价值的角度去考虑，那么测试的贡献应该在哪呢？从根本上来说, 可以从两个方面来考虑: 内部方面包括测试成本以及测试效益, 外部方面强调未来系统的威胁以及机遇。对于基于价值的测试，其关键就是要把这两个方面结合起来,也就是说通过客户和市场需求调整内部测试的过程。 为了使内部和外部两方面因素相结合，只专注于技术方面的测试显然是不恰当的。相反， 测试管理需要有个全局的把握。 例41描述了测试管理内外双方面之间的依赖关系。内部方面的就如同测试经理对整个项目的控制。这方面的费用主要来自于软件测试实践以及短期长期的测试。而外部方面被认为是测试主管所能控制以外的一些利益和参数数据基于价值的软件测试管理使得测试能够满足以利益为重的价值主张，以及使整个小组聚焦在有价值的测试方向上。 对于软件测试的外部观点的首要问题是“我们如何确保软件系统的价值目标？” 这目标就是通过协调价值主张来测试软件集中的有价值部分，最重要的品质以及项目风险的及时调整等回答这样的问题包括市场机遇，项目的价值主张以及成本效益。参考第一章关于机遇和风险的详细介绍以及参考第七章的价值主张的引出与调和。 内部观点是建立在价值主张的利益之上，以及测试的预算代表着整个项目的一个大概水平。这主要的问题就是如何把测试作为一项投资活动。为了能够高效迅速的测试及降低开发预算。适当的内外部交流协调能够满足测试的利益价值。 测试的价值贡献 测试与其他的开发环节诸如代码和用户界面设计相比，它不能立即对产品创造价值。然而测试提供和支持软件开发过程中产生的有价值的任务活动。理解测试贡献价值的关键点在于测试的贡献效应。测试的贡献建立了测试与最终产品价值利益之间的关系。 最直接的客户是直接与测试小组有密切联系的程序开发者和项目主管。在基于价值的软件工程测试过程中的集中力量是顾客和用户（见第七章）。顾客和用户通过设定语境和范围来进行测试达到测试的价值目标。 测试的客户 开发人员,项目主管,质量主管,顾客,分析者,最终用户或者维修人员们都得益于软件系统的分析,依靠反馈来检测问题,降低其不确定性,做出相关的决定来加快产品进程。 下面的例子显示了不同组对于测试需求的反馈信息： 顾客和用户关于多大程度上需求一致是否满意以及在多大程度上满足软件的价值利益测试还对项目的进程提供可见性和洞察力通过测试的结果可以了解已通过的测试案例当验收测试时出现不实用的或者失败的显示在实际环境中才能出现的问题，α和β测试提供了一个更加坚实的基础来验证结果。 销售和产品主管从测试计划、定价、促销和分配方面获取相关的信息。产品实际的质量与顾客和用户所期望的质量之间的差异很容易会导致误解和错误的设想以至于降低或者阻止了真正价值的实现。为了能够成功地达到这些期望以及满足个人或组织的目标，通过客户需求来调整产品设计满足某些功能。 对于项目主管，测试支持了风险管理和项目进程的估计。重点是识别和排除潜在的价值破坏和抑制价值功绩的风险。早期的大幅降低项目绩效的严重缺陷,是一个主要的目的。测试降低了不确定性和帮助项目主管对于清除缺陷、系统稳定性以及产品更新发布能够作出更好、更明智的决定。 质量主管对于问题的识别以及对特定问题的动态趋势较为感兴趣。测试结果对于项目评估、对于质量策略的保证以及进程的改进提供了帮助。Rosenberg讨论了测试如何对确保质量作出贡献并展示了测试问题如何验证如何修正以此来提升项目进程。开发者和用户了解相关问题的当前状态，并且提供相关数据来衡量及预测软件的质量和可靠性。 开发人员通常需要获取反馈信息来验证测试实施是否完整，是否符合标准，是否满足质量要求。为了保证稳定性，测试提供了相关缺陷的详细信息，提示测试失败的原因。除此之外，测试对于项目缺陷的改进作出反馈。例如，通过相关的修改以后需要测试其是否随着相关的改动使原先的功能有所改动或者出现衰退的情况，这些都是需要注意的。 对于需求工程师来说，测试对于验证和确认需求是很有价值的。Weinberg曾指出“最有效的方法之一就是通过测试案例就象测试一个完整的系统来形成测试需求”。黑盒测试通过其需求帮助能够保证它们的完整性，准确性，透明性及简明性等。因此测试能够提升要求且向着测试驱动的方向发展。 简言之，测试能够通过降低计划的不确定性和风险性来提升利益，作出相关的决定，努力控制把不必要的消耗减少到最低程度(内部原因)。尤为重要的是，它有助于实现预期的价值利益。这些利益的得来也并不是免费的，测试的代价通常也是有意义的(外部原因)测试可以被理解为购买信息，也可被认为降低成本风险，减少不确定性的投资活动。在成本和利益的投资上需要对测试需求作出相关的决定。因此接下来的两个问题是：什么是测试成本？什么是价值活动的测试利益？ 受到字数的限制，英文部分不能贴上来了，你如果觉得可以的话，可以留下发邮件联系
Enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems attempt to integrate several data sources and processes of an organization into a unified A typical ERP system will use multiple components of computer software and hardware to achieve the A key ingredient of most ERP systems is the use of a unified database to store data for the various system 剩下的给你发到邮箱了，请查收。
每当一个企业,它(直接或间接地雇用了一个特定的商业模式,介绍了设计和建筑的价值创造过程的机理、配送、捕捉它一种商业模式的本质是在德- 以精炼的企业提供满足客户需求的诱惑顾客支付的价值,并把这些付款给利润这反映了管理的假设顾客想要什么,他们要如何,企业如何才能最好地满足这些需求的组织,得到付费,赚钱这篇文章的目的是要理解的重要性,探讨了它们之间的商业模式和经营策略,创新的管理,和经济理论。
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每当企业成立后，明示或暗示采用了一种特殊的商业模式，描述了设计或创造价值，提供架构，并捕获它职业机制的一种商业模式的实质，是在德 - 罚款的方式，其中企业客户提供了价值，诱使客户支付的价值，并且将这些款项以得益它因此反映了管理层对客户所需要的假设，他们希望如何，以及企业如何能够最好地满足组织这些需要，得到报酬这样做，使这一条获益这个的目的是了解商业模式的意义，探索与企业战略，创新管理的联系，以及经济理论。