传承与嬗变-----美国浪漫主义文学浅说 浪漫主义思潮于1820年至1860年间在美国盛行。而此时欧洲的浪漫主义思潮已经趋于衰微,逐渐被现实主义思潮所代替。浪漫主义思潮在欧洲各国的发展也不尽相同,美国作为后起之秀对欧洲各国浪漫主义的吸纳表现出综合性的特征。在19世纪初期,英国浪漫主义诗歌曾在美国掀起一阵狂热,但是持续时间较短。20年代末德国浪漫主义思想经斯塔尔夫人、柯勒律治、托马斯�6�1卡莱尔的过滤介绍被美国大学学子视为经典,催生出美国浪漫主义的新生儿超验主义。然而超验主义对散文和诗歌的偏爱、对小说的排斥虽然代表了清教主义的正统思想,却不符合浪漫主义崇尚自由的思想,也无法吸引大众读者。此时随着美国经济的迅速发展,大众读者需要的是轻松、娱乐、想象性的读物,小说是他们的首选。美国作家面临艰难的处境:他们的作品既要拥有大量的读者,又要符合批评界的常识标准——真实。从洛克的经验哲学发展而来的常识哲学使得维护清教传统的美国人越发将事实和想象看成对立的两极,无法调和共存。美国小说家在创作过程中发现。他们无法创造绝对的真实,所以只能借助罗曼司已经获得的想象的诗学许可进行自由的创作。美国小说家对中世纪罗曼司中的爱情故事和超自然现象丝毫不感兴趣,他们唯一需要的是浪漫主义所崇尚的想象力和罗曼司所具有的自由表达想象的特权。浪漫主义时期开始于十八世纪末,到内战爆发为止,是美国文学史上最重要的时期。华盛顿�6�1欧文出版的《见闻札记》标志着美国文学的开端,惠特曼的《草叶集》[2、3、4]是浪漫主义时期文学的压卷之作。浪漫主义时期的文学是美国文学的繁荣时期,所以也称为“美国的文艺复兴。” 19世纪初,美国完全摆脱了对英国的依赖,以独立国家的身份进入世界政治舞台。这时期作家们跟英国浪漫主义作家一样,强调文学的想象力和感情色彩,反对古典主义的形式和观点,歌颂大自然,崇尚个人与普通人的思想感情,并且寻根问祖发幽古思情。美国社会的发展哺育了“一个伟大民族的文学”。年轻的美国没有历史的沉重包袱,很快在政治、经济和文化方面成长为一个独立的国家。这一时期也是美国历史上西部扩张时期,到1860年领土已开拓到太平洋西岸。到十九世纪中叶,美国已由原来的十三个州扩大到二十一个州,人口从1790年的四百万增至 1860年的三千万。在经济上,年轻的美国经历向工业的转化,影响所及不仅仅是城市,而且也包括农村。蒸汽动力在工、农业生产上的运用、工厂的建立、劳动力的大量需求以及科技上的发明创造使经济生活得到了重组。另外,大量移民促进了工业更加蓬勃的发展。政治上,民主与平等成为这个年轻国家的理想,产生了两党制。值得一提的是这个国家的文学和文化生活。随着独立的美国政府的成立,美国人民已感到需要有美国文学,表达美国人民所特有的经历:早期清教徒的殖民,与印第安人的遭遇,边疆开发者的生活以及西部荒原等。这个年轻国家的文学富有想象,已产生了一种文学环境。报刊杂志如雨后春笋,出现了一大批文学读者,形成了十九世纪上半叶蓬勃的浪漫主义的文学思潮。 外国的,尤其是英国的文学大师对美国作家产生了重大影响。美国作家由于秉承了与英国一样的文化传统,形成了同英国一样的浪漫主义风格。欧文 (Irving)、库柏(Cooper),坡(Poe),弗伦诺(Freneau)和布雷恩特(Bryant)一一反古典主义时期的文学样式和文学思潮, 开创了较新的小说和诗歌形式。这一时期大多数美国文学作品中,普遍强调文学的想象力和情感因素,注重生动的描写、异国情调的表达、感官的体会和对超自然力的描述。美国作家特别注意感情的自由表达和人物的心理描写。作品中的主人公富有敏感激动的特质。注重表现个人和普通人是这一时期作品的强烈倾向,几乎成了美国的信仰。富雷诺、布雷思特和库柏等人的作品对客观自然的描写有强烈的兴趣。富雷诺在"帝国的废墟"主题中对过去情景的描写绘声绘色,布雷恩特对北美五大湖区的史前印第安人描述引人入胜,欧文对哈德逊河传说的巧加利用炉火纯青,库柏的长篇历史小说深入细致。总的来说,美国浪漫主义时期的文学上接英国文学传统,下开美国文学之风。 虽然美国文学受到外国文学的影响,但这一时期著名的文学作品表现的却是富有美国色彩的浪漫主义思想。“西部开拓”就是一个说明美国作家表现自己国家的恰好的例子。他们大量描述了美国本土的自然风光:原始的森林、广袤的平原、无际的草原、沧茫的大海、不一而足。这些自然景物成为人们品格的象征,形成了美国文学中离开尘世,心向自然的传统。这些传统在库柏的《皮袜子的故事》(Leather Stocking Tales〉、梭罗的《沃尔顿》 (Walden)以及后来马克�6�1吐温的《哈克贝里�6�1芬历险记》(Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn)中都得到了明显的表现。随着美国民族意识的增长,在小说、诗歌中美国人物都越来越明显地操本地方言,作品多表现农民、穷人、儿童以及没有文化的人,还有那些虽然没文化但心地高尚的红种人和白种人。美国清教作为一种文化遗产,对美国人的道德观念产生了很大影响,在美国文学中也留下了明显的印迹。一个明显的表现就是,比起欧洲文学, 美国文学的道德倾向十分浓厚。在霍桑(Hawthorne)、梅尔维尔(Melville)以及其他一些小作家的作品中加尔文主义的原罪思想和罪恶的神秘性都得到了充分的表现。 美国浪漫主义文学运动足能标炳的是新英格兰的超验主义运动。该运动开始于19世纪30年代的新英格兰的先验主义俱乐部。本来,这个超验主义只是对新英格兰人提出来的。它是针对波士顿的唯一神教派的冷淡古板的理性主义而提的。而后来逐渐影响到全国,特别是在高级知识分子和文学界人士当中影响颇大,成为浪漫主义运动的核心。超验主义,它崇尚直觉,反对理性和权威,强调人有能力凭直觉直接认识真理,人能超越感觉获得知识。超验主义文学的主要代表是爱默生(Emerson)[5]和梭罗(Henry Davd Thoreau),他们的作品对美国文学产生了很大影响。超验主义理论的奠基人是爱默生,他的《论自然》曾被称为超验主义理论的“圣经”。超验主义“承认人类具有本能了解或认识真理的能力,能够超过感官获取知识”。爱默生[5]曾说:“只有人心灵的尊严才是最神圣的。”超验主义还认为自然是高尚的,个人是神圣的,因此人必须自助。在诗歌方面,新英格兰地区比较出名的诗人有郎费罗,在波士顿有惠蒂诶,他的长诗《大雪封门》被称为“一部优美的新英格兰田园诗”。 这一时期涌现了许多作家,著名的有富雷诺(Philip Freneau)、布雷恩特(William Cullen Bryant)、郎费罗 (Henry Wordsworth Longfellow)、娄威尔(James Rassel Lowell)、惠特 (John Greenleaf Whitter〉、爱伦�6�1坡[6] (Edgar Ellen Poe)、以及惠特曼[2、3、4、8] (Walt Whitman)。19世纪最伟大的美国浪漫主义诗人是惠特曼,惠特曼1855年出版的《草叶集》[2、3、4、8](Leaves of Grass)是美国十九世纪最有影响的诗歌。《草叶集》[2、3、4、8]标志着美国文学进入了一个崭新的时代。另一位革新诗人是狄金森[7、8],她被誉为美国20世纪新诗的先驱。浪漫主义时期两位最重要的小说家是霍桑和梅尔维尔,在浪漫派作家中埃德加�6�1爱伦�6�1坡[6]是第一位美国主张为艺术而艺术的人。美国浪漫主义时期的小说富有独创性、多样性,有华盛顿�6�1欧文的喜剧性寓言体小说,有爱伦�6�1坡[6]的歌德式惊险故事,有库柏的边疆历险故事,有麦尔维尔长篇叙事,有霍桑的心理罗曼史,有戴维斯 (Rebecca Harding Davis)的社会现实小说。美国浪漫主义作家在人性的理解上也各自不同。爱默生、梭罗等超验主义者认为人类在自然中是神圣的,因此人类是可以完善的,但霍桑和麦尔维尔则认为人们在内心上都是罪人,因此需要道德力量来改善人性。《红字》[9]一书就典型地反映了这个观点。总之,美国浪漫主义文学在一定程度上与欧洲浪漫主义文学之间有衍生性,与启蒙思想相悖,强调感情、想象和主观性。但大部分美国浪漫主义文学作品还是典型的美国化作品。美国浪漫主义文学的特征与其产生的特定的社会、历史、文化背景渊源相关,反映了美利坚民族一个“真正全新的经历”、深受美国清教主义运动的影响、信仰个人主义和直觉的价值、追求民主与政治上的平等、强调“使命感”以及多样化的创作形式。
《美国文学简史》的作者是常耀信。常耀信,男,汉族,1940年出生,博士,教授,博士生导师。现任教于中国南开大学及美国关岛大学。1965年毕业于南开大学英文系,同年赴英国伦敦、剑桥进修。1984年在美国坦普尔大学英文系获博士学位。常耀信的研究方向为英美文学。著有《希腊罗马神话》、《漫话英美文学》、《美国文学简史》(英文版)、《美国文学史(上)》(中文版);主编有《美国文学研究选读》(上、下)、《美国文学研究评论选》(下、下)及《自选评论文集——文化与文学中的比较研究》等。此外,还在国内外刊物上发表过多篇论文,阐述中国文化对美国文学的影响。1988年被选入英国国际传记中心编纂的《远东及太平洋名人录》,后亦被选入《美国名师录》。
英文还是中文阿?我有一篇讲澳大利亚Climate Change的,原创,英文的。
American literature refers to written or literary work produced in the area of the United States and Colonial A For more specific discussions of poetry and theater, see Poetry of the United States and Theater in the United SOverviewDuring its early history, America was a series of British colonies on the eastern coast of the present-day United S Therefore, its literary tradition begins as linked to the broader tradition of English However, unique American characteristics and the breadth of its production usually now cause it to be considered a separate path and Colonial literatureSome of the earliest forms of American literature were pamphlets and writings extolling the benefits of the colonies to both a European and colonist John Smith of Jamestown could be considered the first American author with his works: A True Relation of Virginia (1608) and The General Historie of Virginia, New England, and the Summer Isles (1624) Other writers of this manner included Daniel Denton, Thomas Ashe, William Penn, George Percy, William Strachey, John Hammond, Daniel Coxe, Gabriel Thomas, and John LThe religious disputes that prompted settlement in America were also topics of early A journal written by John Winthrop discussed the religious foundations of the Massachusetts Bay C Edward Winslow also recorded a diary of the first years after the Mayflower's Other religiously influenced writers included Increase Mather and William Bradford, author of the journal published as a History of Plymouth Plantation, 1620– Others like Roger Williams and Nathaniel Ward more fiercely argued state and church Some poetry also Anne Bradstreet and Edward Taylor are especially Michael Wigglesworth wrote a best-selling poem, The Day of Doom, describing the time of Nicholas Noyes was also known for his doggerel Other early writings described conflicts and interaction with the Indians, as seen in writings by Daniel Gookin, Alexander Whitaker, John Mason, Benjamin Church, and Mary R John Eliot translated the Bible into the Algonquin Jonathan Edwards and Cotton Mather represented the Great Awakening, a religious revival in the early 18th century that asserted strict C Other Puritan and religious writers include Thomas Hooker, Thomas Shepard, Uriah Oakes, John Wise, and Samuel W Less strict and serious writers included Samuel Sewall, Sarah Kemble Knight, and William BThe revolutionary period also contained political writings, including those by colonists Samuel Adams, Josiah Quincy, John Dickinson, and Joseph Galloway, a loyalist to the Two key figures were Benjamin Franklin and Thomas P Franklin's Poor Richard's Almanac and The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin are esteemed works with their wit and influence toward the formation of a budding American Paine's pamphlet Common Sense and The American Crisis writings are seen as playing a key role in influencing the political tone of the During the revolution itself, poems and songs such as "Yankee Doodle" and "Nathan Hale" were Major satirists included John Trumbull and Francis H Philip Morin Freneau also wrote poems about the war's Early US literatureIn the post-war period, The Federalist essays by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay prepresented a historical discussion of government organization and republican Thomas Jefferson's United States Declaration of Independence, his influence on the Constitution, his autobiography, the Notes on the State of Virginia, and the mass of his letters have led to him being considered one of the most talented early American Fisher Ames, James Otis, and Patrick Henry are also valued for their political writings and The first American novel is sometimes considered to be William Hill Brown's The Power of Sympathy (1789) Much of the early literature of the new nation struggled to find a uniquely American European forms and styles were often transferred to new locales and critics often saw them as For example, Wieland and other novels by Charles Brockden Brown (1771-1810) are often seen as imitations of the Gothic novels then being written in EUnique American styleWith the War of 1812 and an increasing desire to produce uniquely American work, a number of key new literary figures appeared, perhaps most prominently Washington Irving, William Cullen Bryant, James Fenimore Cooper, and Edgar Allan P Irving, often considered the first writer to develop a unique American style (although this is debated) wrote humorous works in Salmagundi and the well-known satire A History of New York, by Diedrich Knickerbocker (1809) Bryant wrote early romantic and nature-inspired poetry, which evolved away from their European In 1835, Poe began writing short stories -- including The Masque of the Red Death, The Pit and the Pendulum, The Fall of the House of Usher, and The Murders in the Rue Morgue -- that explore previously hidden levels of human psychology and push the boundaries of fiction toward mystery and Cooper's Leatherstocking tales about Natty Bumppo were popular both in the new country and Humorous writers were also popular and included Seba Smith and Benjamin P Shillaber in New England and Davy Crockett, Augustus Baldwin Longstreet, Johnson J Hooper, Thomas Bangs Thorpe, Joseph G Baldwin, and George Washington Harris writing about the American The New England Brahmins were a group of writers connected to Harvard University and its seat in Cambridge, M The core included James Russell Lowell, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and Oliver Wendell Holmes, SIn 1836, Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), an ex-minister, published a startling nonfiction work called Nature, in which he claimed it was possible to dispense with organized religion and reach a lofty spiritual state by studying and responding to the natural His work influenced not only the writers who gathered around him, forming a movement known as Transcendentalism, but also the public, who heard him Emerson's most gifted fellow-thinker was perhaps Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862), a resolute After living mostly by himself for two years in a cabin by a wooded pond, Thoreau wrote Walden, a book-length memoir that urges resistance to the meddlesome dictates of organized His radical writings express a deep-rooted tendency toward individualism in the American Other writers influenced by Transcendentalism were Bronson Alcott, Margaret Fuller, George Ripley, Orestes Brownson, and Jones VThe political conflict surrounding Abolitionism inspired the writings of William Lloyd Garrison and his paper The Liberator, along with poet John Greenleaf Whittier and Harriet Beecher Stowe in her world-famous Uncle Tom's CIn 1837, the young Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864) collected some of his stories as Twice-Told Tales, a volume rich in symbolism and occult Hawthorne went on to write full-length "romances," quasi-allegorical novels that explore such themes as guilt, pride, and emotional repression in his native New E His masterpiece, The Scarlet Letter, is the stark drama of a woman cast out of her community for committing Hawthorne's fiction had a profound impact on his friend Herman Melville (1819-1891), who first made a name for himself by turning material from his seafaring days into exotic Inspired by Hawthorne's example, Melville went on to write novels rich in philosophical In Moby Dick, an adventurous whaling voyage becomes the vehicle for examining such themes as obsession, the nature of evil, and human struggle against the In another fine work, the short novel Billy Budd, Melville dramatizes the conflicting claims of duty and compassion on board a ship in time of His more profound books sold poorly, and he had been long forgotten by the time of his He was rediscovered in the early decades of the 20th Anti-transcendental works from Melville, Hawthorne, and Poe all comprise the Dark Romanticism subgenre of literature popular during this