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Language and ThoughtLanguage and Thoughtby Dan Slobin of the University of California, BerkeleyNo one would disagree with the claim that language and thought interact in many significant There is great disagreement, however, about the proposition that each specific language has its own influence on the thought and action of its On the one hand, anyone who has learned more than one language is struck by the many ways in which languages differ from one But on the other hand, we expect human beings everywhere to have similar ways of experiencing the Comparisons of different languages can lead one to pay attention to 'universals'--the ways in which all languages are similar, and to 'particulars' --the ways in which each individual language, or type of language, is special, even Linguists and other social scientists interested in universals have formulated theories to describe and explain human language and human language behavior in general terms as species-specific capacities of human However, the idea that different languages may influence thinking in different ways has been present in many cultures and has given rise to many philosophical Because it is so difficult to pin down effects of a particular language on a particular thought pattern, this issue remains It comes in and out of fashion and often evokes considerable energy in efforts to support or refute Relativity and Determinism There are two problems to confront in this arena: linguistic relativity and linguistic Relativity is easy to In order to speak any language, you have to pay attention to the meanings that are grammatically marked in that For example, in English it is necessary to mark the verb to indicate the time of occurrence of an event you are speaking about: It's raining; It rained; and so In Turkish, however, it is impossible to simply say, 'It rained last night' This language, like many American Indian languages, has more than one past tense, depending on one's source of knowledge of the In Turkish, there are two past tenses--one to report direct experience and the other to report events that you know about only by inference or Thus, if you were out in the rain last night, you will say, 'It rained last night' using the past-tense form that indicates that you were a witness to the rain; but if you wake up in the morning and see the wet street and garden, you are obliged to use the other past-tense form--the one that indicates that you were not a witness to the rain Differences of this sort have fascinated linguists and anthropologists for They have reported hundreds of facts about 'exotic' languages, such as verbs that are marked or chosen according to the shape of an object that is being handled (Navajo) or for the relative ages of speaker and hearer (Korean) Such facts are grist for the mill of linguistic And, indeed, they can be found quite readily in 'nonexotic' languages as To cite a fact about English that is well known to linguists: It is not appropriate to say Richard Nixon has worked in Washington, but it is perfectly OK to say Gerald Ford has worked in W Why? English restricts the present perfect tense ('has worked') to assertions about people who are Exotic! Proponents of linguistic determinism argue that such differences between languages influence the ways people think--perhaps the ways in which whole cultures are Among the strongest statements of this position are those by Benjamin Lee Whorf and his teacher, Edward Sapir, in the first half of this century--hence the label, 'The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis', for the theory of linguistic relativity and Whorf proposed: 'We cut nature up, organize it into concepts, and ascribe significances as we do, largely because we are parties to an agreement to organize it in this way--an agreement that holds throughout our speech community and is codified in the patterns of our language' (Whorf, 1940; in Carroll, 1956, 213-4) And, in the words of Sapir: 'Human are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their The fact of the matter is that the "real world" is to a large extent unconsciously built up on the language habits of the group' (Sapir, 1929; in Manlbaum, 1958, 162) Investigating Language and Thought How can such bold claims be substantiated beyond examination of individual languages themselves? If one takes the hypothesis seriously, it should be possible to show that Turks are more sensitive to evidence than are Americans, but that Americans are more aware of death than T Clearly, the hypothesis cannot be supported on so grand a Rather, experimental psychologists and cognitive anthropologists have sought to find small differences, on controlled tasks, between speakers of various Maybe Navajos are somewhat more sensitive to shapes of objects, for The results have been In most cases, human thought and action are overdetermined by an array of causes, so the structure of language may not play a central causal Linguistic determinism can best be demonstrated in situations in which language is the principal means of drawing people's attention to a particular aspect of For example, if you regularly speak a language in which you must pick a form of second-person address (you) that marks your social relationship to your interlocutor--such as Spanish tu ('you' for friends and family and for those socially subordinate) usted ('you' for those socially above in status or for those with whom you have no close connection) or French tu versus vous--you must categorize every person you talk to in terms of the relevant social (As a thought experiment of linguistic determinism, think of the categorizations of social relationships that would have to be made if Spanish became the common language of the United S) Going beyond thought experiments, some of the most convincing research demonstrating some degree of linguistic determinism is being conducted under the direction of Stephen C Levinson at the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics in Nijmegen, The N Levinson and his collaborators distinguish between languages that describe spatial relations in terms of the body (like English 'right/left', 'front/back') and those that orient to fixed points in the environment (like 'north/south/east/west' in some aboriginal Australian languages) In a language of the second type one would refer, for example, to 'your north shoulder' or 'the bottle at the west end of the table'; in narrating a past event, one would have to remember how the actions related to the compass Thus, in order to speak this type of language, you always have to know where you are with respect to the compass points, whether you are speaking or And Levinson's group have shown, in extensive cross-linguistic and cross-cultur studies, that this is, in fact, the Much more research needs to be done, but it is not likely that the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis will be supported in the strong form quoted For one, language is only one factor that influences cognition and For another, if the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis were really true, second language learning and translation would be far harder than they However, because language is so pervasive--and because we must always make cognitive decisions while speaking--weaker versions of the hypothesis will continue to attract scientific (For a lively debate on many of these issues, with much new evidence from several fields, read Gumperz and Levinson ) Suggested Readings Gumperz, J J, and Levinson, S C Rethinking linguistic Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University P Lucy, John A Language diversity and thought: A reformulation of the linguistic relativity Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University P Sapir, E "The status of linguistics as a science" Language 207- Reprinted in The selected writings of Edward Sapir in language, culture, and personality, by D G Mandelbaum, 160- Berkeley: University of California P Whorf, B L "Science and linguistics" Technology Review 42: 227-31, 247- Reprinted in Language, thought, and reality: Selected writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf, by J B Carroll, 207- Cambridge, MA: The Technology Press of MIT/New York: W

英美文学作品《简爱》是一部英国文学史上的经典之作。它的伟大在于成功地塑造了一位坚持维护独立人格，最求个性自由，主张人生平等，不向命运屈服的坚强女性形象。小说的主人公简爱从小父母双亡，过着寄人篱下的生活。小小年纪就承受着与同龄人不一样的待遇：姨妈的嫌弃，表姐的蔑视，表哥的侮辱和毒打以至被抛弃送进环境恶劣的劳渥德学校。读到这里，我既为简爱的不幸遭遇感到难过，又为这些人的冷酷无情而感到气愤。道貌岸然的布洛克尔赫斯特先生不但当着全体师生的面诋毁她，还让她在众人面前示众。可以说简爱的童年是不幸的。然而，在这些不幸和苦难面前，她并没有退缩，而是勇敢顽强地面对，把它化为战胜不幸和苦难的动力。不但在学习上飞速进步，同时也取得了全校师生的理解。同样，在那些贵族小姐和绅士面前，她也始终保持着高贵的尊严。面对嘲笑与挖苦，她从不因为自己是一个地位低贱的家庭教师而感到自卑。她认为他们是平等的，一样受到别人的尊重。"难道就因为我一贫如洗，默默无闻，长相平庸，个子矮小，就没有灵魂，没有心肠了--你错了，我的心灵跟你一样丰富，我的心胸跟你一样充实！"也正是因为她的正直、高尚和纯洁，深深打动了罗切斯特先生，使他感到自惭形秽，对简爱肃然起敬。最后，简爱终于找到属于自己的幸福。正是这种敢于向恶俗实力反抗、追求平等的精神，让夏洛蒂笔下的简爱形象获得了永生。通过这篇小说，我们不难发现，在主人公简爱的身上有着作者自身的影子。夏洛蒂勃朗特出生于一个生活贫寒的牧师家庭，幼年失去母亲，受学识渊博的父亲影响，从小便对文学产生了浓厚的兴趣。但是家庭的变故和当时的社会现状，注定了她的文学道路不会是一帆风顺的。而她并没有因此放弃，终于写出了这部有着深远影响的《简爱》。法国作家维尼曾说过："平凡的人听从命运，只有强者才是自己的主宰。"从简爱和夏洛蒂身上，我真正明白了这句话的含义